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According to G. R. Terry – “Directing means moving to action and supplying simulative power to a group of persons”. Thus, the plan is put into operation through the organisation by the process of direction. Another term used to describe this function is “Activating”.
In the words of G. R. Terry – “Activating means moving into action – supplying simulative power to the group”.
According to Dale, “Direction is telling people what to do and seeing that they do it to the best of their ability. It is through directing that managers get the work done through people. It consists of:
1. Issuing orders and instructions by a superior to his subordinates.
2. Guiding, advising and helping subordinates in the proper methods of work.
3. Motivating them to achieve goals by providing incentives, good working environment etc.
4. Supervising subordinates to ensure compliance with plans”.
To carry out physically the activities resulting from the planning and organising steps, it is necessary for the manager to take measures that will start and continue action as long as they are needed in order to accomplish the task by the members of the group. The process of directing or activating involves:
1. Providing effective leadership
2. Integrating people and tasks and convincing them to assist in the achievement of the overall objectives
3. Effective communication
4. Providing climate for ‘subordinate’ development
Directing represents one of the essential functions of management because it deals with human relations. Once the organisational plans have been laid down, the structure being designed and competent people brought in to fill various positions in organisation, direction starts. Direction phase of management is the heart of management-in action.
Directing has the following characteristics features:
1. It is the function of the superior manager and runs from top to down in the organisation structure. A subordinate has to receive instructions for doing his job from his superior.
2. Direction implies issuing orders and instruction. Besides issuing orders and instruction a superior also guides and counsels his subordinates to do his job properly.
3. The top management gives broad direction to the middle level managers who in turn give specific direction to the lower level management.
4. The four important aspects of directing are supervision, motivation, leadership and communication. All these functions are interconnected and mutually dependent.
The function of directing is concerned with employee orientation, issuing instructions, supervision, motivation, communication and leadership.
1. Employee Orientation: An employee must be properly oriented to the enterprise in which they are working. This orientation is necessary for them to accomplish the objectives of the enterprise.
2. Instructions: An instruction is an order or command by a senior directing. Subordinate to act or refrain from acting under a given situation. The right to issue orders should be with the superior by virtue of his position.
3. Supervision: In order to see that the work is done according to the instructions the superior must observe the activities of the subordinates. Supervision is done at all levels of management. However, supervision is more important at lower levels.
4. Motivation: One of the most challenging problems for management is to motivate people. Management has to induce the employee to utilise his talent and skill to contribute to the organisational goal.
The importance of direction in an organisation can be viewed by the fact that every action is initiated through direction. It is the human element which handles the other resources of the organisation. Each individual in the organisation is related with others and his functioning affects others and, in turn, is affected by others. This makes the functioning of direction all the more important. The importance of the direction function is given below:
1. Direction Integrates Employees’ Efforts: The individual efforts needs to be integrated so that the organisation achieves its objectives. No organisational objective can be achieved without the function of direction.
2. Direction Gets Output From Individuals: Every individual in the organisation has some potentials and capabilities which can be properly utilised through the function of direction.
3. Direction Facilitates Changes: To manage change management must motivate individuals to accept these changes which can be accomplished through motivation.
4. Direction Initiates Action: It is through direction that the management makes individuals function in a particular way to get organisational objectives.
Direction is one of the most important functions of management. A good plan may have been checked out, sound organisation may have been evolved and a sound team of workers may be employed, but all these will not produce any result until there is proper direction of the people in the use of various resources. Direction helps in achieving coordination among various operations of the enterprise. It is only after the performance of direction function that the purpose of planning, organising and staffing is achieved. Directing is the process around which all performance revolves. It is the essence of operation and co-ordination is a necessary by-product of good managerial directing.
Direction is a pervasive function of management. It exists at every level, location and operation throughout an enterprise. Some people think that only the managers at the lower level who deal directly with the workers, perform the direction function. This point of view is not correct. Direction function must be performed by every manager at different levels of the enterprise. For instance, chief executive of a company interprets the objectives and policies of the company and delegates authority to the departmental managers, the direction function is part and parcel of these activities. Every manager, regardless of the number of subordinates, performs this function because he is busy in giving instructions to the subordinates, guiding them, and motivating them for the achievement of certain goals.
Like any other function of management, directing is a continuing activity. A manager never ceases to direct, guide and supervise his subordinates. A manager who issues orders and instructions and thinks his job is complete is committing a very serious error. He must continuously supervise the execution of his orders or instructions by the subordinates. He should also provide them effective leadership and motivation. Thus, he will have to continue to devote considerable time on the direction function.
Direction is one of the most important functions of management. A good plan may have been checked out, sound organisation may have been evolved and a sound team of workers may be employed, but all these will not produce any result until there is proper direction of the people in the use of various resources. Direction helps in achieving coordination among various operations of the enterprise. It is only after the performance of direction function that the purpose of planning, organising and staffing is achieved. Directing is the process around which all performance revolves. It is the essence of operation and co-ordination is a necessary by-product of good managerial directing.
For effective direction, following principles may be used:
1. Principle of direct supervision: The manager should supplement objective methods of supervision and control with direct personal supervision to ensure personal contact.
2. Principle of direct objectives: The manager should communicate effectively and motivate the subordinates for most effective performance.
3. Principle of leadership: Ability to lead effectively is essential to effective direction.
4. Principle of harmony of objectives: The manager should guide the subordinates so that their individual interest harmonizes with group interests.
5. Principle of comprehension: The communication should ensure that the recipients of the information actually comprehend it.
6. Principle of unity of command: For most effective direction, subordinates should be responsible to one superior.
7. Principle of managerial communication: The manager being the principle medium of communication, should keep lines of communication open.
8. Principle of direct communication: The direct flow of information is most effective for communications.
9. Principle of informed communication: The management should recognise and utilise informal organisation constructively.
Following points should be observed while issuing orders to the subordinates:
1. Promptness: Professional form and proper tone in orders. Prompt issuing of order and proper use of technical words and phrases is essential for effective directing. Proper tone in issuing the orders should be observed.
2. Few orders: Issue as few orders as possible. More orders than those that are absolutely necessary, if issued, will result in loss of independence and thus initiatives of subordinates will be suppressed.
3. Follow up orders: Another important principle of direction is that once orders or instructions are issued, they should be followed up to see that they are executed, or the instructions should be countermanded or withdrawn.
4. Clear orders: The orders should be absolutely clear. They create confidence in the mind of the subordinates about the clear understanding by the order given.
5. Legitimate scope of orders: The manager issuing the order should keep within his own domain. He must not encroach upon the sphere of the receiving executive.
6. Brief but complete orders: The orders should be as brief as possible but complete orders to convey fully what is intended to be done.
Directions may be either oral or written. Some of the advantage of written directions are as follows:
Written directions are more clear, comprehensive and clarity of thought and better quality of direction maintained.
1. Written orders are comparatively more intelligible and the chances for misunderstanding and duplication of efforts will be minimised.
2. The subordinates also get an ample opportunity to study the directive carefully.
3. It also makes it possible to communicate to all interested parties simultaneously.
4. A written order can be consulted readily to maintain accuracy.
5. It helps in accountability and smooth carrying out of orders.
A manager has at his disposal three broad techniques of direction.
1. Consultative direction: In this method executive consults with his subordinates concerning the feasibility, the workability and the extent and content of a problem before the superior makes a decision and issues a directive. The following advantages are claimed in this type of method:
a. Participation occurs on every level of organisation.
b. Better communication.
c. Least resistance from subordinates, experience and knowledge of subordinate also can be used to arrive at right directives.
d. It induces better motivation and morale.
e. It leads to better co-ordination and effective results
This method has the following disadvantages:
1. It is time consuming.
2. Subordinates may consider it their right and prerogative to be consulted before a directive is given to them by their superiors.
3. Sometimes unnecessary arguments arise leading to wastage of time.
2. Free rein direction: The free rein technique encourages and enables the subordinate to contribute his own initiative, independent thought, drive, perspicacity and ingenuity to the solution of the problem. The free rein technique of direction will probably show the best and quickest results, if the subordinate is highly educated, brilliant young man a sole performer, who has a sincere desire to become a top level manager.
3. Automatic direction: In this method manager gives direct, clear and precise orders to his subordinates, with detailed instructions as how and what is to be done allowing no room for the initiative of the subordinate.
Motivation is the process of channelling a person’s inner drives so that he wants to accomplish the goals of the organization. Motivation concern itself with the will to work. It seeks to know the incentives for work and tries to find out the ways and means whereby their realization can be helped and encouraged. Managers, by definition, are required to work with and through people, so they must gain at least some understanding of the forces that will motivate the people they are to manage. People are complex and they are uniquely different. What motivates one person may not motivate another. Most successful managers have learned to understand the concept of human motivation and are able to use that understanding to achieve higher standards of subordinate work performance.
“Motivation” is a Latin word, meaning “to move”. Human motives are internalised goals within individuals. Motivation may be defined as those forces that cause people to behave in certain ways. Motivation encompasses all those pressures and influences that trigger, channel, and sustain human behaviour. Most successful managers have learned to understand the concept of human motivation and are able to use that understanding to achieve higher standards of subordinate work performance.
Motivation has been defined by Michael J Juicus as “the act of stimulating someone or oneself to get a desired course of action”.
In the words of Lewis Allen, “Motivation is the work a manager performs to inspire, encourage and impel people to take required action”.
According to Dubin, Motivation is, “The complex of forces starting and keeping a person at work in an organization. To put it generally, motivation starts and maintains an activity along a prescribed line. Motivation is something that moves the person to action, and continuous him in the course of action already initiated”.
According to William G Scott, “Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goals”.
According to Koontz and O’Donnell, “Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, needs, wishes and similar forces”.
In the words of Brech, “Motivation is a general inspiration process which gets the members of the team to pull their weight effectively, to give their loyalty to the group, to carry out properly the tasks they have accepted and generally to play an effective part in the job that the group has undertaken”.
In the words of Dalton E McFarland, “Motivation refers to the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, striving or needs direct, control or explain the behaviour of human beings”.
In the words of Tolman, “The term motivation has been called an intervening variable.
Intervening variables are internal and psychological process which are not directly observable and which, in turn, account for behaviour”.
Psychologists generally agree that all behaviour is motivated, and that people have reasons for doing the things they do or for behaving in the manner that they do. Motivating is the work a manager performs to inspire, encourage and impel people to take required action.
The process of motivation is characterized by the following:-
1. Motivation is an Internal Feeling: Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which generates in the mind of an individual the feeling that he lacks certain things and needs those things. Motivation is a force within an individual that drives him to behave in a certain way.
2. Motivation is Related to Needs: Needs are deficiencies which are created whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbalance. In order to motivate a person, we have to understand his needs that call for satisfaction.
3. Motivation Produces Goal-Directed Behaviour: Goals are anything which will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. An individual’s behaviour is directed towards a goal.
4. Motivation can be either Positive or Negative: Positive or incentive motivation is generally based on reward. According to Flippo – “Positive motivation is a process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain or reward”. Negative or fear motivation is based on force and fear. Fear causes persons to act in a certain way because they are afraid of the consequences if they don’t.
A manager’s primary task is to motivate others to perform the tasks of the organization.
Therefore, the manager must find the keys to get subordinates to come to work regularly and on time, to work hard, and to make positive contributions towards the effective and efficient achievement of organizational objectives. Motivation is an effective instrument in the hands of a manager for inspiring the work force and creating confidence in it. By motivating the work force, management creates “will to work” which is necessary for the achievement of organizational goals. The various benefits of motivation are:-
1. Motivation is one of the important elements in the directing process. By motivating the workers, a manager directs or guides the workers’ actions in the desired direction for accomplishing the goals of the organization.
2. Workers will tend to be as efficient as possible by improving upon their skills and knowledge so that they are able to contribute to the progress of the organization thereby increasing productivity.
3. For performing any tasks, two things are necessary. They are: (a) ability to work and (b) willingness to work. Without willingness to work, ability to work is of no use. The willingness to work can be created only by motivation.
4. Organizational effectiveness becomes, to some degree, a question of management’s ability to motivate its employees, to direct at least a reasonable effort towards the goals of the organization.
5. Motivation contributes to good industrial relations in the organization. When the workers are motivated, contented and disciplined, the frictions between the workers and the management will be reduced.
6. Motivation is the best remedy for resistance to changes. When changes are introduced in an organization, generally, there will be resistance from the workers. But if the workers of an organization are motivated, they will accept, introduce and implement the changes whole heartily and help to keep the organization on the right track of progress.
7. Motivation facilitates the maximum utilization of all factors of production, human, physical and financial resources and thereby contributes to higher production.
8. Motivation promotes a sense of belonging among the workers. The workers feel that the enterprise belongs to them and the interest of the enterprise is their interests.
9. Many organizations are now beginning to pay increasing attention to developing their employees as future resources upon which they can draw as they grow and develop.
If a manager wants to get work done by his employees, he may either hold out a promise of a reward (positive motivation) or he may install fear (negative motivation). Both these types are widely used by managements.
1. Positive or Incentive Motivation: This type of motivation is generally based on reward. A positive motivation involves the possibility of increased motive satisfaction. According to Flippo – “Positive motivation is a process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain or reward”. Incentive motivation is the “pull” mechanism. The receipt of awards, due recognition and praise for work-well done definitely lead to good team spirit, co-operation and a feeling of happiness.
Positive motivation include:-
a. Praise and credit for work done
b. Wages and Salaries
c. Appreciation
d. A sincere interest in subordinates as individuals
e. Delegation of authority and responsibility
2. Negative or Fear Motivation: This type of motivation is based on force and fear. Fear causes persons to act in a certain way because they fear the consequences. Negative motivation involves the possibility of decreased motive satisfaction. It is a “push” mechanism. The imposition of punishment frequently results in frustration among those punished, leading to the development of maladaptive behaviour. It also creates a hostile state of mind and an unfavourable attitude to the job. However, there is no management which has not used the negative motivation at some time or the other.
Motivation to work is very complex. There are many internal and environmental variables that affect the motivation to work. Behavioural scientists started to search new facts and techniques for motivation. These theories are termed as theories of motivation. The most important theories are explained below.
Different styles of management have a different bearing on the motivation of workers in the organization. The style adopted by a manager in managing his subordinates is basically dependent upon his assumption about human behaviour. Theory X is negative, traditional and autocratic style while Theory Y is positive, participatory and democratic. Thus, these labels describe contrasting set of assumptions about human nature. Douglas McGregor has classified the basic assumption regarding human nature into two parts and has designated them as ‘theory X’ and ‘theory Y’.
Theory X: This is the traditional theory of human behaviour, which makes the following assumptions about human nature:
1. Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprises – money, material, equipment, and people – in the interest of economic ends.
2. With reference to people it is a process of directing their efforts, motivating them, controlling their actions, modifying their behaviour in order to be in conformity with the needs of the organization.
3. Without this active intervention by management, people would be passive – even resistant to organizational needs. Hence they must be persuaded, rewarded, punished and properly directed.
4. The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can.
5. He lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility and prefers to be led.
6. He is inherently self-centred, indifferent to organizational needs.
7. He is by nature resistant to change.
8. He is gullible, not very bright.
Theory Y: The assumption of theory Y, according to McGregor are as follows:-
1. Work is as natural as play or rest, provided the conditions are favourable; the average human being does not inherently dislike work.
2. External control and the thrust of punishment are not the only means for bringing about efforts towards organizational objectives. Man can exercise self-control and self-direction in the service of objectives to which he is committed.
3. Commitment to objectives is a result of the rewards associated with their achievement. People select goals for themselves if they see the possibilities of some kind of reward that may be material or even psychological.
4. The average human being, under proper conditions does not shirk responsibility, but learn not only to accept responsibility but also to seek it.
5. He has capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in the solution of organizational problems in widely, not narrowly distributed in the population.
6. Under conditions of modern industrial life the intellectual potentialities of people are only partially utilized. As a matter of fact, men, have unlimited potential.
| Theory X | Theory Y |
| Theory X assumes human beings inherently dislike work and are distasteful towards work. | Theory Y assumes that work is as natural as play or rest. |
| Theory X emphasises that people do not have ambitions and they shrink responsibility. | Theory Y assumes just the reverse. Given proper conditions, people have ambitions and they accept responsibility |
| Theory X assumes that people in general have a little capacity for creativity | Theory Y says that creativity is widely distributed in population. |
| According to theory X, people lack self-motivation | According to theory Y, people are self-directed and have self-control |
| Theory X focusses on centralisation. | Theory Y focusses on De-centralisation. |
According to Abraham Maslow, a U.S psychologist, man is a wanting anima
1. He has a variety of wants or needs. All motivated behaviour of man is directed towards the satisfaction of his needs. The theory postulated that people are motivated by multiple needs, which could be arranged in a hierarchy. Maslow offers a general theory of motivation called the ‘need hierarchy theory’. The features of his theory are as follows:-
2. People have a wide range of needs which motivate them to strive for fulfilment.
3. Human needs can be definitely categorized into five types:
4. Physical needs,
5. Safety or security needs,
6. Affiliation or social needs,
7. Esteem needs and
8. Self-actualisation needs.
9. These needs can be arranged into a hierarchy. Physical needs are at the base whereas self-actualisation needs are at the apex.
10. People gratify their physical needs first, when the need is satisfied, they feel the urge for the next higher level need.
11. Relative satisfaction of lower level need is necessary to activate the next higher level need.
12. A satisfied need does not motivate human behaviour. It only triggers or activates the urge for the next higher level of needs.
Deficit and Progression Principles: In order to comprehend the full meaning of Maslow’s theory, it is necessary to understand the deficit and progression principles.
Deficit Principle: According to Maslow, once a need is fairly well satisfied, it is no longer a stronger motivator of behaviour. People are motivated to satisfy only those needs that are perceived to be deficient.
Progression Principle: Maslow contends that the five categories of needs exist in a hierarchy. A need at a given level is not activated until the need directly below it is fairly well gratified. Thus, the person is expected to progress step-by-step up the need hierarchy.
The need-hierarchy theory must not be viewed as a rigid structure to be applied universally in all situations. The hierarchy represents a typical pattern that operates most of the time.
Hertzberg developed a theory of motivation on the premise that human nature has two separate elements – The motivators and maintenance factors. According to this theory of motivation the items that determine job content are considered motivational factors e.g.:- Achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement and the work itself. The elements that influence the job context are the hygiene or maintenance factors e.g.:- company policy, salary, inter-personal relations, working conditions etc. They must be adequate and if they are absent or inadequate, they will create dissatisfaction.
1. Hygiene Factors: Hygiene factors represent the need to avoid pain in the environment. They are not an intrinsic part of a job, but they are related to the conditions under which a job is performed. They are associated with negative feelings. They must be viewed as preventive measures that remove sources of dissatisfaction from environment. Hertzberg believed that hygiene factors created a zero level of motivation and if maintained at proper level prevents negative type of motivation from occurring. Thus, hygiene factors, when absent, increase dissatisfaction with the job. When present, help in preventing dissatisfaction but do not increase satisfaction or motivation.
2. Motivators: Motivators are associated with positive feelings of employees about the job. They make people satisfied with their job. Motivators are necessary to keep job satisfaction and job performance high. On the other hand, if they are not present they do not prove highly satisfying. Motivational factors or satisfiers are directly related to job content itself, the individual’s performance of it, its responsibilities and the growth and recognition obtained from it. Motivators are intrinsic to the job. Thus, when motivators are absent, prevent both satisfaction and motivation. When, motivators are present, they lead to satisfaction and motivation. To apply the two-factor theory to the workplace, Hertzberg suggests a two-step process
a. The supervisor should attempt to eliminate the hygiene factors that are found to be more basic than factors that lead to satisfaction.
b. Once the dissatisfies have been somewhat neutralized, the supervisor may be able to motivate workers through the introduction of motivational factors.
Expectancy Theory was developed by Victor H Vroom. It is based on the notion that human behaviour depends on people’s expectations concerning their ability to perform tasks and to receive desired rewards. The expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends in the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual. It includes three variables which Vroom refers to as –
1. Valance: Valence means the strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome. A valence of zero occurs when the individual is indifferent towards the outcome. The valance is negative when the individual prefers not attaining the outcome to attaining it.
2. Instrumentality: Instrumentality refers to the relationship between performance and reward. It refers to a degree to which a first level outcome (e.g.:-superior performance) will lead to a desired second level outcome (e.g.:- promotion). If people perceive that their performance is adequately rewarded the perceived instrumentality will be positive. On the other hand, if they perceive that performance does not make any difference to their rewards, the instrumentality will be low.
3. Expectancy: People have expectancies about the likelihood that an action or effort on their part will lead to the intended performance. Workers will be motivated by the belief that their performance will ultimately lead to payoffs for them. Expectancy is the probability that a particular action will lead to a particular first level outcome. In sum, Vroom emphasizes the importance of individual perceptions and assessments of organizational behaviour. The key to “expectancy” theory is the “understanding of an individual’s goals” – and the linkage between “effort” and “performance” between “performance” and “rewards” and between “rewards” and “individual-goal satisfaction”. It is a contingency model, which recognizes that there is no universal method of motivating people. Because we understand what needs an employee seeks to satisfy does not ensure that the employee himself perceives high job performance as necessarily leading to the satisfaction of these needs.
David C McClelland, a Harvard Psychologist, has proposed that there are three major relevant motives most needs in work-place situations. According to him, the motives are:-
1. The need for achievement i.e., strives to succeed.
2. The need for affiliation i.e., warm relationship with others.
3. The need for power i.e., controls other people.
According to McClelland, every motive is acquired except striving for pleasure and avoiding pain. He proposed that people acquire these needs for achievement, power and affiliation through experiences over the time. On the job, people are motivated by these needs, and the manager can learn to recognize these needs in workers and use them to motivate behaviour.
McClelland used the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to study human needs. The
TAT process involves asking respondents to look at pictures and write stories about what they see in the pictures. The stories are then analysed to find certain themes that represent various human needs. From his research, McClelland found that, achievement motive is a “desire to perform in terms of a standard of excellence or to be successful in competitive situations”. They (employees) seek situations where:
1. They can attain personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems.
2. They can receive immediate feedback information on how they are progressive towards a goal.
3. They can set moderately challenging goals.
4. They find accomplishing a task intrinsically satisfying.
“High achievers” differentiate themselves from others by their desire to do things better.
Evaluation: Achievement motivated people is the backbone of any organization. As such considerable time and attention must be devoted to constructing ways of developing the achievement motive at the managerial level. Organizational climate must be conducive to high achievement. Managers must try to raise the achievement need level of subordinates by creating the proper work environment, increasing responsibility and autonomy and rewarding excellence in performance.
Because of the criticisms of Maslow’s ‘hierarchy of needs’ theory, motivation researcher Clayton Alderfer of Yale University has reworked Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to align it more closely with empirical research. His revised need hierarchy is labelled ERG Theory. The name stems from combining Maslow’s five needs into three need levels: existence, relatedness and growth.
1. Existence Needs: include the various forms of material and physiological desires, such as food and water, as well as work-related forms such as pay, fringe benefits and physical working conditions.
2. Relatedness needs: address our relationships with significant others, such as families, friendship groups, work groups and professional groups. They deal with our need to be accepted by others, achieve mutual understanding on matters that are important to us and exercise some influence over those with whom we interact on an ongoing basis.
3. Growth needs: impel creativity and innovation, along with the desire to have a productive impact on our surroundings. ERG need levels differ in terms of concreteness, that is, the degree to which their presence or absence can be verified. The existence need level is the most concrete, relating to issues such as our rate of pay and the pleasantness of our work surroundings. The growth need level is the least concrete, involving more nebulous issues such as our level of creativity, the degree to which our capabilities are growing relative to our capacity, and the long-term impact of our efforts on our organisation. According to ERG theory, we generally tend to concentrate first on our most concrete requirements. As existence needs are resolved, we have more energy available for concentrating on relatedness needs, which offer a potential source of support that can help us in satisfying growth needs. Thus, ERG theory incorporates a satisfaction-progression principle similar to that of Maslow in that satisfaction of one level of need encourages concern with the next level.
Besides substituting three needs for five, how does Alderfer’s ERG Theory differ from Maslow’s? The ERG Theory differs from the hierarchy of needs theory in three significant ways.
1. Although the general notion of a hierarchy is retained, Alderfer’s theory argues that we can be concerned with more than one need category at the same time. Needs at lower levels are not necessarily fairly well satisfied before we concern ourselves with other needs, although satisfaction of lower-level needs can be helpful in allowing us to devote our attention to higher-level needs.
2. ERG theory is more flexible in acknowledging that some individuals’ needs may occur in a somewhat different order than that posited by the ERG framework.
3. ERG theory incorporates a frustration-regression principle. This principle states that if we are continually frustrated in our attempts to satisfy a higher-level need, we may cease to be concerned about that need. Instead, we may regress to exhibiting greater concern for a lower level need that is more concrete and seemingly more within our grasp.
In summary, ERG theory argues – like Maslow – that satisfied lower order needs lead to the desire to satisfy higher order needs; but multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the same time, and frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher level need can result in regression to a lower level need. Both Maslow’s hierarchy theory and ERG theory are extremely difficult to test because they involve measuring and tracking an individual’s changing needs and fulfilment levels over time. So far, the limited research on ERG theory has generally been supportive. If ERG theory is correct in predicting that individuals attempt to fulfil multiple needs at the same time, then motivating individuals is likely to require offering a variety of means for need fulfilment. Because of the frustration-regression aspect of ERG theory, managers need to be particularly concerned with providing opportunities to satisfy growth needs, lest employees cease to be interested in them.
Intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation. That is, goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended. While goal setting was originally viewed as a technique, it is developing into a motivational theory as researchers attempt to understand better the cognitive factors that influence success. Goal-setting experts Edwin A Locke and Gary P Latham argue that goal setting works by directing attention and action, mobilizing effort, increasing persistence, and encouraging the development of strategies to achieve the goals. Feedback regarding results also is an essential element in motivating through goal setting.
The success of goal setting in motivating performance depends on establishing goals that have the appropriate attributes or characteristics. In particular goals should be specific and measurable, challenging, attainable, relevant too the major work of the organisation, and time-limited in the sense of having a defined period of time within which the goal must be accomplished. Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of “do your best”. The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus. If factors like ability and acceptance of the goal are held constant, we can also state that the more difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance. However, it’s logical to assume that easier goals are more likely to be accepted. But once an employee accepts a hard task, he or she will exert a high level of effort until it is achieved, lowered or abandoned.
People will do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals because feedback helps identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do; that is, feedback acts to guide behaviour. Goal-setting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the goal, that is, determined not to lower or abandon the goal. This is most likely to occur when goals are made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, and when the goals are self-set rather than assigned. Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task. So, in difficult situations, we find that people with low self-efficacy well try harder to master the challenge.
It is very difficult for an average manager to sort through all the different motivational theories and models and know when and how to maximize their application in widely differing situations. There should be a sound system of motivation to make the workers put forth their best efforts. A sound system of motivation should have the following essential features.
1. A sound motivation system should satisfy the needs and objectives of both organization and employees.
2. Motivational system should change with the changes in the situation.
3. Jobs should be designed in such a way as to provide challenge and variety.
4. Managers should recruit the active co-operation of subordinates in improving the organization’s output. Subordinates should be made to realize that they are stakeholders in the organization.
5. The motivational system should satisfy the different needs of employees. It should be directly related to the efforts of the employers.
6. The motivational system should be simple so that it is easily understood by the workers.
The word supervision consists of two parts super and vision where super means over and above Vision means you look over people. The supervision means overseeing people at work. It is used in management to ensure that people are working in the desired manner. He may also be designated as a foreman, section officer, Gang chief etc. Supervision is direction, guidance and control of working force with a view to see that they are working according to plan and are keeping time schedule. In business organisations, there are ‘supervisors’ and ‘subordinates’.
According to M. S. Vitoles, “Supervision refers to the direct, immediate guidance and control of subordinates in the performance of their jobs. Thus, the activity of supervision is concerned with the direction, guidance, control and superintendence of the subordinates. A supervisor performs these tasks. R. C. Allan has called it a ‘responsibility job’, which is above ‘work job’.
“Supervision is the function of assuring that the work is being done in accordance with the plan and instruction.” Says Davis.
According to Terry,” Supervision is the task of achieving the desired results by means of intelligent utilisation of human talents and utilising resources in a manner that provides a challenge to human talent. It is concerned with initiating action, putting into effect the plan and decision by stimulation of the human resources of the enterprise.”
Some personal qualities like attractive personality, good health, high intelligence, persuasiveness and loyalty to the organization are assets to a supervisor, most of which are inherited rather than acquired. In addition to these personal traits there are certain qualities which can be acquired by a person to become a good supervisor. According to Halsey a good supervisor must possess the following qualities:
1. Personal Qualifications: which include integrity, honesty, ability to cooperate, ability to attract, motivate and unite others to work;
2. Teaching Ability: Ability to communicate with the workers.
3. General Outlook: The supervisor should show liking of the job and be absorbed in it.
4. Initiative: Includes qualities of courage, self-confidence and decisiveness.
5. Thoroughness: A supervisor must have detailed knowledge of all the information relevant to the task and take care of every necessary detail.
6. Fairness: A supervisor should exhibit a sense of justice, consideration and truthfulness towards subordinates.
7. Tact: Saying and doing things in a way which give the subordinates a feeling of playing an important part in whatever is being done.
8. Enthusiasm: It is an intense and eager interest in and devotion to the organizational goals.
9. Emotional Control: It means emotional maturity which controls and channels emotions in the right direction.
Some more qualities of a good supervisor may be added. Over and above all these qualities the most important quality essential for a supervisor is the human relations aspect of supervision. A supervisor must keep this in her mind and try to win over the confidence of her subordinates by treating them in a cordial, friendly and persuasive manner. Skills, Knowledge and Attitude Required for Supervision From the stages and activities involved in the process of supervision you have learnt that it is a process of providing constant observation, guidance and appraisal for the staff providing nursing care. To ensure these, a supervisor is expected to develop certain skills, acquire specific knowledge and inculcate an attitude that will be helpful in developing leadership behaviour.
Following are the principles of Supervision:
1. Good supervision generates and guaranties quality of services rendered
2. Good supervision coordinates and unifies efforts of the nursing staff.
3. Good supervision fosters the ability of each staff member to think and act for herself / himself i.e. it promotes effectiveness of individual staff member.
4. Good supervision is based on the needs of individuals.
5. Good supervision respects the individuality of the staff members.
6. Supervision of graduate staff nurses differs from that of students.
7. Good supervision strives to make the ward a good learning situation.
8. Good supervision is well planned.
Functions of supervisor are as follows:
1. Issuing Orders and Instructions: To execute the work supervisor has to issue Orders and instructions. The purpose of order is to initiate action on the part of subordinate. Instructions tell what is to be done and how supervision is needed to set the working and provide the job training.
2. Scheduling of Work: Supervisor prepares a schedule of all the activities and sub activities which is to be done by the subordinates. The objective of scheduling is to ensure job is completed efficiently in a right manner, at right time so that there is no delay in achieving the target goal.
3. Motivating Workers: Supervisor motivate subordinates and help them to perform better. It creates enthusiasm, team Spirit among various subordinates. Both financial and non- financial incentives are provided to them for the purpose of reorganization of work done.
4. Guiding Subordinates: The primary function of supervisor is to give advice and guidance. Subordinates explain them the plans and policy of Management to solve the problem related to technical aspect of working conditions and provides them with all the necessities.
6. Monitoring Performance: As we all know it is important to monitor performance for job appraisal, supervisor checks on the work method and progress of an employee. He records the actual performance at regular interval on the basis of quality and quantity of work done and ensures that’s according its working standards.
7. Maintaining Discipline: The supervisor enforces rules and regulation among subordinates and ensures that there is strict discipline in their working and they are following the rules and working procedures while doing a job.
8. Ensuring Safety: The supervisor ensure that all safety measures are taken while performing to job and all the Machines and equipment are properly condition all the technical failures have been minimised and all the hazards has been taken care of.
9. Feedback: We all know that supervisor makes a submit report about all the employees and subordinates working and submit the report to the higher authorities. On the basis of that report performance of subordinate is being checked regularly. Reports are used as a feedback to inspire workers to do hard work.
When we talk of incentives to work talk of income which is an as an achievement of Greater output. It includes cost which are the incentives to utilise human resources efficiently. Time wage maintain quality but adversely effects production incentive provide benefit to both employers and workers. Incentive systems link compensation and performance and reward for their performance. They are financial and non- financial motivation designed to motivate human efforts and also regard the workers about that time and how they can improve. In the most general terms, an incentive is anything that motivates a person to do something. When we’re talking about economics, the definition becomes a bit narrower: Economic incentives are financial motivations for people to take certain actions. Anything that can attract an employee’s attention and motivate them to work can be called as incentive. An incentive aims at improving the overall performance of an organization. Incentives can be classified as direct and indirect compensation. They can be prepared as individual plans, group plans and organisational plans.
According to Milton L. Rock, Incentives are defined as ‘variable rewards granted according to variations in the achievement of specific results’.
According to K. N. Subramaniam, ‘incentive is system of payment emphasizing the point of motivation, that is, the imparting of incentives to workers for higher production and productivity’.
The National Commission of Labour defines incentive as follows: ‘wage incentives are extra financial motivation. They are designed to stimulate human effort by rewarding the person, over and above the time rated remuneration, for improvements in the present and targeted results’.
Objectives of incentive plan are as follows:
1. It reduces the labour cost.
2. It increases productivity.
3. It improves the efficiency.
4. It is the source of highest motivation and boost morale of employees.
5. It encourages employees to achieve organisational goal.
6. It increases the earning of the workers.
7. It Maintain harmonious labour management relation.
Under individual incentive plan, individual employee is paid incentive on the basis of individual performance or output. The employers are liable to pay incentives to those employees who are producing more than the standard output. Individual incentive plans can be either time based or production based. In case of time based incentive plans, a standard time is determined for doing a job and this standard time served as a basis for giving incentive. A worker is considered as efficient, if he completes his job in less than standard time. The worker is awarded for his efficiency by giving incentive under some incentive plans. Some of the time based incentive plans are:
1. Halsey Incentive Plan.
2. Rowan Incentive Plan.
3. Emerson Efficiency Plan.
4. Bedeaux Incentive Plan.
In this method a standard time is fixed for the completion of the job. A minimum base-wage is guaranteed to every worker. If a worker completes his job in just the standard time, he will not be given any incentive. If a worker performs his job in less than standard time, he is given incentive. The incentive will be equal to 50% of the time saved by the worker.
W=TR+(S-T)R% , Where W=Total Wages , S=Standard time, T=Time taken to complete the job, %=Percentage of wages of time saved to be given as incentive, R=Rate;
1. It is simple.
2. Each worker is guaranteed a minimum wage.
3. This is beneficial to efficient worker.
4. Causes no harm to new worker, trainee, or slow worker.
5. Management shares benefits of over-achievement by workers.
1. Workers get only a percentage of return on their over-achievement.
2. The quality of production may suffer as workers may do work in hurry,
3. There may be difficulties in setting standard time for different jobs.
This plan is quite similar to Halsey plan. It differs only in terms of calculation of incentive for time saved. The worker gets the guaranteed minimum wages. The incentive for completing the job in time lesser than standard time is paid on the basis of a ratio, which is time saved over standard time per unit standard time.
Incentive is calculated as: Incentive or Bonus=S-1/SX T x R
Total wages=T x R+ incentive
=T x R(S-T)/S x T x R. Where, W=Total wages S=Standard time , T=Time taken to complete the job, R=Rate
1. This system checks over-speeding and overstrain by worker.
2. Each worker is guaranteed a minimum wage.
3. Efficiency is rewarded.
1. The workers find it difficult to understand.
2. Discourages workers to over-achieve.
3. Workers may not like sharing of profit for over-achievement.
In this plan, a minimum wage is guaranteed to every worker on time basis and incentive is given on the basis of efficiency. Efficiency is determined by the ratio of time taken to standard time. Payment of bonus/incentive is related to efficiency of the workers. Incentive will be given to those workers who attains more than 2/3rd i.e. 66.67% of efficiency. No incentive will be given at 66.67% efficiency. At 100% efficiency incentive is 20% of the hourly rate. For efficiency exceeding 100%, 1% incentive/bonus is paid for every 1% increase in efficiency. For example, if standard time for a job is 6 hours and hourly rate is Rs.3. If a worker completes a job in 6 hours, the efficiency of worker is 100%. His wages will be 6 x 3 + bonus @20% i.e. Rs.18 + 20% of 18 = Rs.21.6
1. Minimum wages are guaranteed.
2. It is simple to understand.
1. Incentive after attaining standard is very low.
Bedeaux system also called units or point system also guarantees a minimum base wage. Under this plan, the standard time and time taken for each job is reduced to minutes. Each minute is referred to, as ‘B’ i.e. one hour is the same as 60B’s. The workers who complete the job within standard time are paid at a normal time rate. Those who complete the job in less time are paid bonus. The bonus paid to the worker is 75% of the wages for time saved. The time saved is divided between workers and management. The formula for calculating wages is:
W=TR+75% (S-T)R, where, w= Total wages, S=Standard time, T=Time taken to complete the job, R=Rate;
1. Minimum wages are guaranteed.
2. Management also shares some percentage of bonus.
1. Incentive after attaining standard is very low.
2. Workers do not like their bonus to be shared by management.
This system was introduced by Taylor, the father of scientific management. The main characteristics of this system are that two rates of wage one lower and one higher are fixed. A lower rate for those workers who are not able to attain the standard output within the standard time; and a higher rate for those who are in a position to produce the standard output within or less than the standard time. For example, if standard production in 8 hours is fixed at 10 units. The lower piece rate is Rs.3 and higher piece rate is Rs.3.5. If a worker produces 9 units, his wages = 9 x 3 = Rs.27. In case a worker produces 10 units, his wages = 10 x 3.5 = Rs.35.
1. Provides incentives to efficient worker.
2. Inefficient worker is penalized.
3. This system is simple and easy to implement.
1. Minimum wage is not assured,
2. There are chances that quality of work may suffer,
3. This system is not liked by below average workers, as they do not get any incentive.
To overcome the limitations of Taylor’s differential piece rate system, Merrick suggested a modified plan in which, three-piece rates are applied for workers with different levels of performance. These are:
1. Workers producing less than 83% of the standard output are paid at basic rate.
2. Workers producing between 83% and 100% of standard output will be paid 110% of basic piece rate.
3. Those producing more than 100% of the standard output will be paid 120% of basic piece rate.
1. Efficient workers are rewarded handsomely.
2. Minimum wages are guaranteed.
1. There is wide gap in slabs of differential wage rate.
2. Over emphasis on high production rate.
This plan is based on careful study of a job. The main feature of this plan is that it combines time rate, piece rate and bonus. A standard time is fixed for doing a particular job. Worker’s actual performance is compared with the standard time and his efficiency is determined.
1. If a worker does not complete the job within standard time i.e. he takes more time than the standard time (efficiency below 100%), he will not receive any bonus but he is given wages for the time taken by him.
2. If a worker completes the job within standard time (100% efficiency), he is given wages for the standard time and bonus of 20% of wages earned.
3. If the worker completes the job in less than the standard time (i.e. efficiency more than 100%), wages are paid according to piece rate.
1. Minimum wages are guaranteed.
2. It is simple to understand.
3. Efficient workers can earn more money.
1. Emphasis on over speed or high production rate.
A group incentive plan scheme is designed to promote effective teamwork, as the bonus is dependent on the performance and output of the team as a whole. Under group incentive plan, each employee is paid incentive on the basis of collective performance of his group to which he belongs. Within the group, each employee gets an equal share of the incentive. Some of the group incentive plans are:
1. Priestman’s Plan.
2. Scanlon’s Plan.
In this plan workers are not considered individually but collectively. This system considers the productivity of all workers as a whole. Bonus is paid in proportion in excess of standard output per week. If in a year, the output increases either above the standard output or the output of the previous year, the wages are increased in the same ratio. For example, if in 2009 the output per worker per unit time is 10 units and in year 2010 the output per worker per unit time comes out to be 12 units, the wages in 2010 will be 20% more than in 2009. The drawback of this system is that individual efficiency is not considered.
A Scanlon plan is a type of gain sharing plan that pays a bonus to employees when they improve their performance or productivity by a certain amount as measured against a previously established standard. A typical Scanlon plan includes an employee suggestion program, a committee system, and a formula-based bonus system. A Scanlon plan focuses attention on the variables over which the organization and its employees have some control.
Advantages of incentive plan are as follows:
1. To Increase Expectancy: Incentive increase workers expectancy and they work in an efficient manner for more rewards. This is a kind of motivation which help them to work hard.
2. To Improve Employment Commitment: Incentive improve employee commitment and involvement as employees see for more and more incentives. They do the work timely and produce quality output. They become innovative and bring new suggestions for increasing organisations effectiveness
3. To Tie Pay to Performance: Incentive plan ties pay to performance productivity and quality and improve the three.
4. To Meet the Principle of Equity: Incentives have equity principle this means an individual who is working better will get more awards. The kind of input and output balance should be equitable. Under traditional system merit pay increases every year without any regard to performance.
5. To Promote Behaviour: Modification incentive scheme provides a desirable outcome in the form of extra pay. It results in lesser absenteeism, minimum labour turnover and even accident rate are minimized. It increases the sense of teamwork and results in more mutual cooperation and assistance.
6. To Reduce the Cost: Incentive plan reduces compensation cost as it increases the productivity and quality. Supervisory cost are also reduced as employees are themselves motivated and work hard to improve their performance so that they can earn extra reward. Moreover workers try to find out efficient way of doing work and reduce wastage to minimum.
1. Spoiling Health: There is always a ceiling on the amount of incentive earning as workers have agreed to earn more and more and they may over work and spoil their normal health for the cause. For this reason they may also spent some money on his treatment
2. Quality Sacrifice: When the only incentive you get is for achieving the goal of increase production they may sacrifice the qualities so as to maximize the output in minimum time. In this situation there is strict supervision and more supervision costs added.
3. Complexity: The administration of an incentive scheme can be complex. There are certain standards which has to be established and measured. Incentive systems has many qualities and are precise. Employees may not achieve standard because forces are uncontrollable and often machines breakdown and there are power cuts too.
Work Life Balance is the process of managing personal life and office. Work life balance is very important to have a competent and enthusiastic employee. It is a denominator of healthy working environment. It is a psychological process which keeps and employee stress free and eases him out. Work stress leads to various diseases such as hypertension, diabetes, panic attack which in turn may affect the personal life of the employee. Chronic stress is the negative impact of Mental Health which reduces efficiency in the workplace as well as he may not be able to give his best in his personal life. Work life balance means prioritising once mental health, once happiness and once well-being index. It means creating a balance between the workplace and family and not mixing responsibilities of two. Therefore this means one should not take business tension back to home and feeling rejected to be a part of family in a same manner when in an office one should not waste their time in their personal problems One should avoid mingling of work and personal life and understand that both factors are equal important to live even if we lack behind in one of the factor we will not be eternally happy Employees who work tons of overtime hours are at a high risk of burnout. Burnout can cause fatigue, mood swings, irritability and a decrease in work performance. This is bad news for employers because according to Harvard Business Review, the psychological and physical problems of burned-out employees cost an estimated $125 billion to $190 billion a year in healthcare spending in the United States. Therefore work life balance is an essential component according to which the entire work of an organisation should be designed. Work life balance is different to everyone it carries an individuality it should be flexible enough to adjust in the broad spectrum of people psychology. Work-life balance is a concept that describes the ideal situation in which an employee can split his or her time and energy between work and other important aspects of their life. Achieving work-life balance is a daily challenge. It is tough to make time for family, friends, community participation, spirituality, personal growth, self-care, and other personal activities, in addition to the demands of the workplace.
1. Creating a flexible work environment is one of the best ways to satisfy the work-life balance needs of most employees – no matter which generation they belong to. A flexible work environment has been shown to decrease stress, boost levels of job satisfaction and help employees maintain healthier habits. Employers should offer flexible work hours, the ability to work from home and unlimited PTO to create a more flexible work environment that appeals across generations of workers.
2. Stop being perfectionist and accept your flaws.
3. Push your capacity up to a level which you think you can bear the burden of.
4. Unplug yourself from the technology and social media around and at least once a week. Give your best to your family and do not bring work in between.
5. Practice the Power of Resilience: Achieving Balance, Confidence and Personal Strength in Your Life.
6. People often indulge in in alcohol and smoke to reduce the stress which affects their health rather than it one should exercise and meditate to keep the balance in their life.
7. Make small resolutions which help to achieve the goal of maintaining work life balance and achieve them. After every goal achieve set a new goal and work for it.
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