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If it’s considered formal communications as they occur in traditional military organizations, message have a “one-way” directional characteristic. In the military organization, the formal communication proceeds from superior to subordinate, and its content is presumably clear because it originates an higher level of expertise and experience. Military communications also carry the additional assumption, that the superior is responsible for making his communication clear and understandable to his subordinates. This type of organization assumes that there is little need for two-way exchanges between organizational levels except as they are initiated by a higher level. Because messages from superiors a considered to be more important than those from subordinates, the implicit rule is that communication channels, except for prescribed information flows, should not be cluttered by messages from subordinates but should remain open and free for messages moving down the chain of command “Juniors should be seen and not heard,” is still an unwritten, if not explicit, law of military protocol.
Vestiges of one-way flows of communication still exist in many formal organizations outside the military, and for many of the same reasons as described above. Although management recognizes that prescribed information must flow both downward and upward, managers may not always be convinced that two-way communication should be encouraged. For example, to what extent is a subordinate free to communicate to his superior that he understands or does not understand a message? Is it possible for him to question the superior, ask for clarification, suggest modifications to instructions he has received, or transmit unsolicited messages to his superior, which are not prescribed by the rules? To what extent does the one-way rule of direction affect the efficiency of communication in the organization, in addition to the morale and motivation of subordinates?
These are not merely procedural matters but include questions about the organizational climate, or psychological atmosphere in which communication takes place.
Thus, if speed is necessary, if a business-like appearance is important, if a manager does not want his mistakes recognized, and if he wants to protect his power, then one-way communication seems preferable. In contrast, if the manager wants to get his message across, or if he is concerned about his receivers’ feeling that they are participating and are contributing, the two-way system is better.
Harold Leavitt has suggested a simple experiment that helps answer some of these questions. A group is assigned the task of re-creating on paper a set of rectangular figures, first as they are described by the leader under one way conditions, and second as they are described by the leader under two-way conditions (A different configuration of rectangles is used in the second trial.) in the one-way trial, the leader’s back is turned to the group. He describes the rectangles as he sees them. No one in the group is allowed to ask questions and no one may indicate by any audible or visible sign his understanding or his frustration as he attempts to follow the leader’s directions. In the two-way trial, the leader faces the group in this case, the group may ask for clarifications on his description of the rectangles and he can not only see but also can feel and respond to the emotional reactions of group members as they try to re-create his instructions on paper. On the basis of a number of experimental trials similar to the one described above, Leavitt formed
These conclusions:
1. One-way communication is faster than two-way communication.
2. Two-way communication is more accurate than one-way communication.
3. Receivers are more sure of themselves and make more correct judgments of how right or wrong they are in the two-way system.
4. The sender feels psychologically under attack in the two-way system, because his receivers pick up his mistakes and oversights and point them out to him.
5. The two-way method is relatively noisier and looks more disorderly. The one-way method, on the other hand, appears neat and efficient to an outside observer.
Every Business Organisation is related to two types of communication – First, Internal communication and second, external communication. Internal communication means to communicate within the internal limits of the organisation. While external communication means to communicate outside the limits of organisation. For example, communicating with banks, offices, press, customers, and general public.
In the office, effective internal communication is fundamental to its existence. Internal communication, also called inter-communication, is a major function of the office. It is the inter-communication that keeps the organisation going.
Internal communication in the office is very important due to the following reasons:
1. Communication and Coordination: The process of coordination in the organisation will produce no results unless effective communication takes place. We know that coordination is a basic management without which an organisation cannot hope to exist for long.
2. Communication and Control: Control function is a basic management function which c exercised without proper internal communication in the office. Goals and targets are first communicated to the lower layers of the organisation and then performance is communicated to higher management.
3. Communication and office systems and routines: Communication in the office is the heart and soul of office systems and routines. They would fail to work without effective communication within body of the office.
4. Communication and upward, downward and crosswise flow of information: Two communication is essential for flow of information from the top to the bottom and from the bottom to top of the organisation. Also it is essential to have crosswise or horizontal flow of information with a v to cut short delays in communicating.
5. Communication and motivation: The office workers are to be motivated to work. Inter communication thus serves as the vehicle to motivate right from the time that the employee joins organisation up to the time that he leaves it.
6. Need for competitive Information: Modern business is highly competitive in nature. Lot of information is gathered in the office to meet the challenge of competition. Such information is useful only when it is properly transmitted to the right people for proper assessment of the state of competition that the desired steps are taken to meet the challenges of competition.
7. Projects public image: Good communication ultimately helps project a good image in the eyes of the public. Good communication is another name for good public relations. Good public relation promote the interests of an enterprise.
Internal communication system should be such which maximises the efficiency of the setup. In order to achieve this, therefore, it must have certain characteristics which are summarised below:
1. Simplicity and economy: The system should be simple and cheap to introduce and run. These two factors shall be considered with reference to the organisational goals and policies.
2. Clarity: The system should be such through which communication is clear. Clarity is basic E inter-communication. If the system does not make messages clear when they are forwarded or sent back the system will fail in its objective.
3. Attention: System of internal communication should be such that a communication attracts the full attention of the receiver immediately on its receipt. Even if the communication is simple useful if the receiver does not pay any attention to it. Yet it will be useful if the receiver does not pay any attention to it.
4. Integrity: The communication system should preserve the basic integrity of the organisation, i.e., the communication must pass through the well-defined channels provided in the organisation. The communication system should not allow for the passing of communication to the ultimate employees over the heads of subordinate managers in the office who happen to direct and supervise them.
5. Use of informal organization: Although formal channels are used yet they do not always get the best results. The communication system should not impose any restriction on the information organisation in fact, the communication system must recognise the existence of informal organisation within the office organisation. All the leading authorities on management recognise “grapevine” as one of the most important means of communication.
6. Avoiding information overload: Too much information flows in a large modern organisation Similarly too much information gets generated in an organisation. It is necessary to communicate my that information which is needed for a given purpose. It is also essential that no desired details about facts and data should be missed by the communicator.
Classification of communication can be done based on means used, or according to direction, or based on relationships.
a. Formal communication is the transmission of direction or information in the formal organisation structure. Every individual communicates only with his subordinates directly.
b. Informal communication can be defined as the transmission of messages between members of a group based on informal relations and understanding among people at the same or different leel and not based on the formal relations as given in the organisational structure.
It signifies the flow of communication from the lower levels to the higher levels of the organisation. upward communication from operative employees to the Managing Director. The purposes of upward communication are to keep the superiors informed about the progress of the work and difficulties faced in executing orders, suggest measures far improvement, communicate grievances and create a feeling of belongingness through participation. Upward communication can take the form of activity reports, suggestions, recommendations, grievances, etc.
Upward communication is equally essential for successful managing as downward communication. It helps the top management in knowing how its plans will and policies are understood by the operative employees. It helps in knowing the attitudes of the employees. Management should always encourage upward communication. This will help management in taking steps to overcome resistance to change on the part of the workers and to increase the morale of the employees. Upward communication may take the form of either written communication or verbal communication.
Media of Upward Communication
1. Suggestion System. Many firms have formal suggestion systems. They provide for suggestion boxes for putting in suggestions by the workers. They encourage workers to fill in su8gestion forms regularly. However, in this system every suggestion should receive sincere consideration. Employees should be promptly informed of the results of any decision whatsoever reached on each suggestion.
2. Grievance Procedure. Some organisations evolve a systematic procedure through which employees complain matters affecting them. The procedure gives the subordinates an opportunity to settle their most disputes within the organisation unions negotiate through normal grievance procedures.
3. Open-door Policy. It is an established channel that allows workers to bypass immediate supervisors and talk to the top executives regarding important matters without fear of reprisal. This communication channel reduces tension among subordinates and improves trust. It is important that employees are aware of the open-door policy and believe that the management is sincere in listening to them. It also involves the management talking directly with the workers. The open-door policy has its disadvantages too. It creates a sense of insecurity among managers when they know that subordinates may lodge complaints directly to upper-level managers. At times a supervisor first finds out any problem that exists when an upset upper-level manager sends for him.
4. Sometimes, anonymous questionnaires are given to workers to fill in with a view to identify problem areas in the organisation. When many workers rate a firm low in a given area, the management it immediately and find solutions thereof. Whatever the case, to earn and sustain the faith of its workers the firm must take immediate measures, otherwise the purpose of using questionnaires may be lost.
5. The organisations having no union can have a complaint officer called an ombudsperson. He hears employees’ complaints, investigates them and recommends appropriate actions to the top management. This form of grievance resolution channel resolves the problems swiftly.
Merits of Upward Communication. The merits of downward communication are as follows –
1. Feedback. It helps managers in receiving feedback from the lower levels that helps them in carrying out the controlling function. It also helps them in working attitude of employees towards company’s goals and plans.
2. Creative Ideas. It provides managers with creative ideas and suggestions, which probably they could not have thought of.
3. Better Relations. It strengthens superior-subordinates and relationships improves harmonious industrial relations.
4. Overcomes Resistance to Change. It overcomes resistance to on change the part of employees as they are allowed to present their fears and apprehensions about the same before the management and obtain necessary clarification and assurance.
5. Increased Motivation. It increases employees’ motivation to work. When employees know that their grievances, ideas and suggestions are considered being by top managers, they feel morally committed to their work.
Limitations of Upward Communication. Upward communication suffers from the following limitations-
1. Fears and Apprehensions. Subordinates do not always report the matters upward the way they want, fear of being reprimanded by their bosses. When they know that the news is not what the boss wants to hear, they do not transmit it at all.
2. A substantial part of information gets filtered when it flows upward. During upward transmission each level filters that part of information which it feels will present an unfavourable picture to their superiors.
3. Time consuming. Too many levels in the official chain of command result in delayed transmission from the lower levels to the higher levels.
4. Inattention of superiors. Sometimes, the superiors do not attach any importance to the upward communication. They may even discourage the subordinates to speak to higher charges.
5. Low morale. The employees feel morally depressed when their grievances and suggestions to the higher authorities do not get the required attention.
From the point of view of the direction or flow of information, communication may be either vertical or horizontal. Vertical communication may move both downward as well as upward. Horizontal communication is also known as lateral or sideward communication. Besides, there may be diagonal communication in organisations which may cut across the vertical lines in the organisation structure. Thus, on the basis of flow of information, communication may be classified as follows:
1. Downward communication.
2. Upward communication.
3. Horizontal or sideward communication.
4. Diagonal communication.
The above figure illustrates the direction of flow of information in an organisation. The flow of information from A to B, C and D is downward and from G to E, F and A is upward. Horizontal communication has been depicted by an arrow between D and G working at the same level in the organisation. And communication between D and E represents diagonal flow of information.
It represents the flow of information from the top level of the lower levels of the organisation. communication from the Managing Director to the operative employees represents downwards flow. The purpose of downward communication is to communicate policies, procedures, programmes and objectives, and to issue orders and instructions to the subordinates. A major part of the formal communication takes the form of downward communication. Downward communication can take place through verbal or written orders and instructions, notices, circulars, letters, memos, posters, periodicals, publications, group meetings, etc.
The objectives of downward communication are as under:
1. To give instructions about what to do and how to do.
2. To explain organisational policies, programs, and procedures.
3. To know how effectively a person is performing his job.
4. To motivate employees to improve their performance.
5. To train subordinates in performing their jobs.
1. Handbooks and Pamphlets. To provide an introduction of the organisation to the newcomers, handbooks and pamphlets are used during the hiring of workers and other staff or during orientation processes. Very often they remain unread, even when the company demands a signed statement that the employee is acquainted with their contents.
2. Posters and Bulletins. Information concerning the firm employees is often communicated on posters and bulletin boards. Indeed, some workers may not be able to read them. Messages communicated thus remain long after their usefulness has passed.
3. House Journal. Many firms have their own newsletters or newspapers, often referred to as house journals. A great ideal of information regarding the organisation can be communicated through these newsletters. They often contain information about new products, about its policies. They readership increases when some space is allocated to items of personal interest lo employees.
4. Pay Inserts and Direct Mail. When the top management wants to communicate matters of importance it can use direct mail intended to employees. Inserting a note with the pay check may also encourage readership. Letters help stimulate interest of workers in company matters.
5. Annual Reports. Most organisations also bring out annual reports for their shareholders. These reports highlight information about new plants, new products, company finances, etc.
6. Special Meetings. The management may schedule special meetings with the employees to explain them the new policies and procedures and to obtain feedback from them. Thus, special meetings can be used for both downward and upward communication.
Merits of Downward Communication. The merits of downward communication are as follows:
1. Mission and Goals. It informs the employees about the organisation mission, goals and how they should contribute their best to accomplish these goals.
2. Plans and Policies. It provides the employees with information regarding organisational plans and policies.
3. Duty and Authority. It facilitates the employees the knowing what is expected of them and the extent of their authority.
4. Job Satisfaction. It increases employees’ job satisfaction by communicating them about their better performance.
Downward communication suffers from the following limitations:
1. In big-sized organisations, information flows through a number of layers. It is quite possible that by the time, it reaches the lowest level in the organisational hierarchy, the message received is different from what was sent.
2. Incomplete Information. Sometimes, managers withhold a part of information with them and transmit incomplete information so that subordinates continue to remain dependent upon them for requisite information. The subordinates will not be able to carry out their tasks effectively with incomplete information.
3. Time Consuming. If the organisational hierarchy has too many levels, it takes too long for information to reach the person concerned. Sometimes, the information reaches after the desired action has already been taken.
4. Filtration of Information. Oral information often gets lost in transit. A part of the information is retained at one level and filled up by some unintended information at another level. Messages are encoded and decoded according to people’s perception. Researches have shown that in some cases, information up to about eighty per cent, gets lost on the way.
| Basis | Upward communication | Downward communication |
| 1. Flow of message | It represents the flow of information from top level to lower levels. | It represents the flow of Message information from lower level to top levels. |
| 2. Purpose | Its purpose is to communicate policies, procedures, orders and subordinates. | Its purpose is to keep the superiors informed about the progress of work and difficulties faced in the execution of orders. |
| 3. Use | It is used to get things done through the subordinates. | It is used to give reports and convey reactions of subordinates to the management. |
| 4. Form of message | It takes the form of oral and written instructions, letters, memos, company publications, etc. | It takes the form of activity reports, suggestions, grievances, etc. |
It refers to the transmission of information among persons of the same level. It generally takes place along departmental heads who are responsible for different functional areas of the business. It is also known as lateral or sideward communication. Horizontal communication is essential for achieving coordination in the enterprise. The methods used in horizontal communication are generally limited. They take the form of memoranda, letters, and the personal face-to-face contacts, telephonic contacts, etc. Informal contacts among the departmental heads play an important role in informal communication. The main purpose of sideward communication is to secure coordination among various departments.
The objectives of lateral communication are as under:
1. To coordinate among various individuals or departments.
2. To solve problems which involve the efforts of various specialists.
3. To resolve conflicts among various employees of the department.
4. To exchange information among various employees of the department.
5. To promote social relations among employees in the organisation.
1. Members of a particular work group,
2. members of different work groups,
3. members of different departments operating at the same level, and
4. members of line and staff.
Horizontal communication can be both oral and written. Oral communication takes place amongst people of the same level when they meet during lunch break, after office hours, discuss issues in meetings and conferences or talk over telephone. Written communication takes place through letters, memos, reports etc.
Horizontal communication is more of an informal nature. If a departmental head needs some information from another departmental head, he may get this by ringing him up directly. In spite of presence of hierarchy in any large industrial organisation, it is possible to accelerate exchange of information if the management recognises and encourages cross contacts which cut across the organisational lines. Such contacts may take place between individuals and groups, not only in their levels but also with other echelon of management. The cross-wise communication can be effective when a proper understanding exists among the superiors on these points. The subordinates should refrain from making communication beyond their authority and should keep their superiors informed of their inter-departmental activities.
The merits of horizontal communication are as follows:
1. It speeds up the flow of work in the organisation.
2. It facilitates problem-solving amongst members at the same level and brings about coordination.
3. It helps in reviewing activities assigned to people working at identical positions.
4. It develops mutual trust and confidence amongst similar position holders of different departments.
5. It relieves top managers of the burden of solving problem of the lower levels if they can manage to solve them on their own.
Horizontal communication suffers from the following limitations:
1. In the modern age, functional heads are so highly specialised in managing activities of their departments that they lack knowledge of other functional areas. This hampers communication at the horizontal level. For example, marketing manager may not appreciate the problem of the finance manager in collecting payments from the debtors and insist on liberal credit to customers.
2. Personal likes and dislikes amongst members of different work groups can obstruct fee flow of information among them.
3. Differences in perceptions and attitudes of functional heads can be counter-productive in horizontal communication. If the chief executive of the company directs functional heads to cut down costs, finance manager may want marketing manager to cut selling expenses while marketing manager may want production manager to cut production costs. This might lead to inter-departmental conflicts.
Diagonal communication cuts across different functions and levels in an organisation. When a supervisor in the credit department communicates directly with a regional marketing manager who is not only in a different department but also at a higher level in the organisation, diagonal communication is said to take place. In some situations, by passing vertical and horizontal channels expedites action and prevents others from being used merely as conduits between senders and receivers. Also, the increased use of electronic mail systems in organisations has made diagonal communication much easier.
Diagonal communication helps in increasing organisational activities as every information cannot be passed through vertical lines of communication. Best use of diagonal communication can be made by ensuring that cross relationships are cordial in nature and that subordinates keep their line superiors informed of their interactions with people of other the efficiency of departments.
The major problem with the diagonal communication is that it departs from the normal chain of command. To minimize communication gaps, most diagonal communications also encompass a vertical communication to superiors or subordinates who may have been bypassed.
Based on method of expression used, communication can be classified into three categories, namely,
1. oral,
2. written, and
3. gestural.
a good system of communication allows the use of all the three types of communication. These are discussed below:
It involves exchange of messages with the help of spoken words. Oral communication may take place
1. by face-to-face contacts, and
2. mechanical devices. Both through face-to-face conversation and conversation mechanical through devices hold an important place in the communication system of any organisation.
Face to face conversation is the most natural way of transmitting the message. Oral orders, personal interviews, lectures, group discussions, social gatherings, etc. are frequently used in our daily life. These have the merit of achieving greater cooperation and understanding because the can communicator convey the message both by words and expressions or listener can make gestures. Moreover, listener can make queries if he has the message any doubt or if he is not able to understand the message.
Mechanical and electronic devices have gained great popularity communicating for the messages in the modern business enterprises. The devices used include important signals, telephones, intercom system, mobile pagers, fax, e-mail, etc.
Oral communication has the following advantages:
1. Oral communication is relatively less expensive as compared to written communication.
2. Oral communication is more effective because of direct contact between the parties to communication.
3. Oral communication helps in getting quick response from the receives.
4. Oral communication, particularly face to face contacts, can be made more effective by supporting them with gestures.
5. Oral communication is faster as compared to written communication.
The disadvantages of oral communication are as under:
1. Oral communication is not possible when parties to communication are at distant places and no electronic means of communication is available.
2. Communication through the electronic device may not be reliable because of the possibility of the breakdown in the transmission system.
3. Oral communication cannot serve as an authentic piece of record unless the conversation is audio or video recorded.
4. Oral communication in the form of face to face meeting may prove to be time consuming and costly.
5. Oral communication may give rise to conflicts in certain situations because of immediate response from the listener. Even if there is a slip of tongue by a person, the words once spoken can’t be taken back.
6. Oral communication may be ignored by the receiver of the message. This would delay action.
Written communication is transmitted by written words in the form of letters, memos, circulars, bulletins, reports, instruction cards, manuals, magazines, handbooks etc. Written communication generally moves downward. Upward communication in the written form is generally discouraged, or the workers are reluctant to use it. Dynamic management should encourage it by installing a suitable suggestion system under which workers are allowed to write their grievances and suggestions freely. Advantages of Written Communication. The benefits of written communication are as under:
1. Written communication can be used to issue instructions and orders to the subordinates.
2. It is very difficult to alter the contents of the written message. So it can’t be distorted.
3. Written communication is a cheaper means of communication the parties to communication are situated at distant places
4. Written messages Oral are more carefully formulated than and specific. One a communication. That is why, they are clearer and specific. One can think adequately before writing anything.
5. Response to written communication is generally well-thought out because the receiver gets sufficient time to understand and evaluate the message.
6. Sometimes, written communication is also used to elaborate oral communication and to keep a record of it. Written communication serves as a reliable record for future reference and can be used in legal proceedings.
The limitations of written oral communication are as under:
1. Written communication is more expensive for transmitting the short messages. It also takes long time to convey the message.
2. Written communication is generally, formal in nature. It does not involve personal touch between the parties.
3. Once a written message has been despatched, there is little scope left for making amends for the inaccuracy that might have crept into it.
4. If the written communication is poorly drafted, it may create misunderstanding and confusion in the mind of the receiver.
| Oral communication | Written communication |
| 1. Communication is expressed through spoken words | Communication is expressed in writing |
| 2. It takes less time | It takes more time |
| 3. It may not be precise | It can be precise |
| 4. Oral communication may not be complete | It is not difficult to understand written communication if it is expressed in unambiguous terms. |
| 5. It is generally informal in nature. | It is generally formal in nature |
| 6. Oral message may not be taken casually | It is generally taken seriously |
| 7. Oral message may not be verifiable | Written message is verifiable from the nature. |
The non-verbal communication does not mean all communication that involves neither written nor spoken words but occur without use of words. Generally, when people involve in face-to-face communication, they convey their messages through gesture, the expression of body part such as movement of eyes and eye-brows, facial expressions, hand positions, body movements, pitch of the voice all convey meaning which adds to or modifies the spoken words.
Non-Verbal Communication is the way in which we express are feelings, emotions attitudes and views throughout the body movements to express our thoughts. According to experts, a substantial portion of our communication is nonverbal. Every day, we respond to thousands on nonverbal cues and behaviours including postures, facial expression, eye gaze, gestures, and tone of voice. From our handshakes to our hairstyles, nonverbal details reveal who we are and impact how we relate to other people. Scientific research on nonverbal communication and behaviour began with the 1872 publication of Charles Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Since that time, there has been an abundance of research on the types, effects, and expression of unspoken communication and behaviour. While these signals are often so subtle that we are not consciously aware of them, research has identified several different types of nonverbal communication. However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focussed on face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where communication takes place, the physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviours of communicators during interaction.
1. Facial Expression: Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication. Consider how much information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. While nonverbal communication and behaviour can vary dramatically between cultures, the facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, and fear are similar throughout the world.
2. Gestures: Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without words. Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate number amounts. Other gestures are arbitrary and related to culture.
3. Paralinguistic: Paralinguistic refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch. Consider the powerful effect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone of voice, listeners might interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same words said in a hesitant tone of voice might convey disapproval and a lack of interest.
4. Body Language and Posture: Kinesics is the study of body movements, facial expressions, and gestures. Posture and movement can also convey a great deal on information. Research on body language has grown significantly since the 1970’s, but popular media have focussed on the over-interpretation of defensive postures, arm-crossing, and leg-crossing, especially after the publication of Julius Fast’s book Body Language. While these nonverbal behaviours can indicate feelings and attitudes, research suggests that body language is far more subtle and less definitive that previously believed.
5. Gesture: A gesture is a non-vocal bodily movement intended to express meanings. They may articulate with the hands, arms or body, and also include movements of the head, face eyes, such as winking, nodding, or rolling one’s eyes. The boundary between language gesture, or verbal and nonverbal communication, can be hard to identify. A wink is a type of gesture.
6. Proxemics: Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space art them. The space between the sender and the receiver of a message influences the way the message is interpreted People often refer to their need for “personal space,” which is al important type of nonverbal communication. The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us is influenced by a number of factors including social norms, situational factors, personality characteristics, and level of familiarity. For example, the amount of personal space needed when having a casual conversation with another person usually varies between 18 inches to four feet. On the other hand, the personal distance needed when speaking to a crowd of people is around 10 to 12 feet.
7. Eye Gaze: The study of the role of eyes in nonverbal communication is sometimes referred to a “oculesics”. Eye contact can indicate interest, attention, and involvement. Gaze is comprised of the actions of looking while talking, looking while listening, amount of gaze, and frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate. When people encounter people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate. Looking at another person can indicate a range of emotions, including hostility, interest, and attraction.
8. Haptics: Haptics is the study of touching as nonverbal communication. Touches that can be defined as communication include handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips, and hand) back slapping, high fives, a pat on the shoulder, and brushing an arm. Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behaviour. There has been a substantial amount of research on the importance of touch in infancy and early childhood.
9. Chronemics: Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. The way we perceive time, structure our time and react to time is a powerful communication tool, and helps set the stage for communication. Time perceptions include punctuality and willingness to wait, the speed of speech and how long people are willing to listen. The timing and frequency of an action as well as the tempo and rhythm of communications within an interaction contributes to the interpretation of nonverbal messages.
10. Appearance: Uniforms have both a functional and a communicative purpose. Our choice of colour, clothing, hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are also considered a means of nonverbal communication. Research on colour psychology has demonstrated that different colours can invoke different moods. Appearance can also alter physiological reactions, judgment, and interpretations
External communication is very vital to the existence of all types of organisations, whether small or big. External communication can be described as the transmission of information to the people outside the organisation and its receipt from outsiders.
An efficient system of external communication has the following objectives.
1. Corporate entity and legal regulations: Since most large enterprises are joint-stock companies, it is necessary to keep in touch with the different Government departments.
2. Gathering market intelligence: It is a major objective of a manufacturing organisation. The office gathers the necessary information about prices of raw materials, machines and equipment for final managerial decision regarding their purchase.
3. Contacts with customers: Customers account for the existence of any enterprise. External communication system provides the channels for information to and from customers.
4. Contacts with investors: A large business exists on the funds provided by a number of people, viz., shareholders, debenture holders, bankers and specialised financial institutions. It is thus necessary to keep in touch these investors. Besides, a regular contact is needed with the stock exchange. External communication aims at these individuals and institutions well-informed about the activities of the business and thus secure their goodwill for prosperity and growth.
5. Other objectives: External communications aim at achieving certain other objectives, for example, keeping in constant touch with the press and public to project a good public image of the enterprise.
There are two broad categories of external communication, namely, the oral communication and the written communication, as it is in the case of internal communication. Let us recount these means briefly.
Some of the important means of external communication transmitted orally are:
1. Face-to-face conversation: Face-to-face means of external communication take place when the businessman visits his bankers, financial institutions or effects sales or purchases. The greatest advantages of this method in external communication is its effectiveness. A job which may take weeks to be done through written communication may be done by paying a single visit. However, it has its own drawbacks. Its greatest drawback is that the method is costly and time-consuming.
2. Telephone: It can be described as the greatest single source of external communication in most business We have already described the various telephone systems. These various systems (excepting the inter com and house telephone systems) are meant to meet the needs of external communications. Telephone is quite a costly means of communication compared with the correspondence through mail, even telex services its cost climbs up steeply for outstation and foreign calls it is, therefore, necessary to have a strict check on the calls made over the telephone A telephone register should be kept at each point and different types of calls must be entered into this register.
It would be proper to consider the various types of telephone provided by the Post Office in our country for external communication. They are classified as under
1. Local calls: are made within the local limits of the telephone exchange or a grid of exchange large cities, such calls are very important since distances are long and immediate contact with branches and customers, etc., within local limits may be needed.
It would not be out of place to emphasize that every organisation is also, linked with the outside world- suppliers, customers, government departments, financial institutions, branches, subsidiaries and other bodies. Essentially, for the effective running of the organisation an uninterrupted communication channel needs to be maintained under all circumstances and in all situations to keep the organisation alive and active.
In the previous pages, we concluded that the communication process plays an important role in the success of a business organisation. There is exchange of information in the organisation through communication system. For example, messages are transmitted from one person to another or from one place to another. The success of an institution or organisation depends to a large extent on the system of communication. Communication system is based on the size of institution. When it is small, informal channel of communication prevails. However, in a large organisation, where number of persons employed is large, communication system is formal. Channels of communication in any institution may be of two types:
2. Formal Communication: Formal Communication is the official communication among different employees of an organisation due to predetermined relationships in an organisation in the course of performing their duties and responsibilities. Formal communication is also referred to as “communication through the chain of command”. The pattern of this communication is determined as per the determined processes in the structure of organization. Formal communication takes place when every employee is on a pre-defined position or status. This communication is between two positions and not between persons. Thus, the scalar chain of authority established by the organisation provides the channels for all official communication. Usually formal communication is in written form, such as notes, memos, letters, reports and statements.
The characteristics of formal communication are as:
1. Formal messages are mostly in written form.
2. Only prescribed and pre-determined information is exchanged in this communication.
3. Organisational hierarchy system is followed, i.e., upward or downward or from down to up, a set pattern is followed.
4. The subject matter, chain of command and authority etc. are all predetermined in this communication.
Formal communication has the undermentioned advantages are
1. The line executives are responsible for getting work done by their subordinates. It provides support to the authority of superiors over subordinates.
2. Such communication is systematic and ensures orderly flow of information and ideas.
3. Formal communication follows a prescribed path and achieves its goal definitely. The source of communication can be easily located. Its reaction can be presumed well in advance with clarity of purpose.
4. Responsibility of actions taken on the basis of any formal communication can be easily fixed. These messages are taken in full seriousness because one cannot refuse their authenticity. Control is facilitated by formal communication providing information about work performance.
The following are the disadvantages of formal communication:
1. Formal communication is mostly conveyed in an impersonal manner. Personal warmth and Involvement is lacking.
2. Accurate information may not be transmitted in view of the likelihood of unfavourable effects of the message or report, or to avoid criticism.
3. This type of communication following the scalar chain of authority is a slow moving process, particularly when it is routed through more than one authority level.
4. The work load of officers mounts up because, along with their normal duties of work, they have to exchange those pieces of information with which they are not related directly.
Informal Communication: When there is an informal relationship between the sender and the receiver, then the communication taking place between them is called informal communication. It consists of exchange of ideas and information resulting from social interaction among the members of an organisation. The source of informal communication is neither the responsibility of the organisation, nor is it the limitation of organisation. Informal communication is quite reverse in nature to formal communication. Actually the necessity of informal communication arises among people to satisfy their social needs, which is not possible through formal communication channels. It may involve work related matters of mutual interest to the parties. The flow of informal communication cuts across the official line of communication. It helps in developing friendly relations among employees. It fills the gap in the flow of information through the official channel. Thus, when sender and receiver are related to each other informally, then the exchange of messages, information feelings, jokes, rumours, clarifications and forecasting among them is called informal communication. Body language is also used in informal communication like to show anger, to smile, to remain silent, to nod etc.
Informal channel is not a deliberately formed network. It is also known as Grapevine, and is the re of not any official action, but of the operation of social forces at workplace. It arises to meet needs aren’t satisfied by formal communication. Employees form friendships, and cliques develop. Gatherings, the persons working at the same place may talk just like that, and likewise. Informal communication allows employees to fill in gaps with in the formal channels. Grapevine is more active when
1. There is high organizational excitement, such as policy changes.
2. The information is new rather than stale.
3. People are physically located close enough to communicate with one another.
4. The people cluster in groups along the grapevine; that is, they have trust among themselves.
Informal communication has the follow characteristics:
1. This system of communication is normally the exchange of verbal talks in which sender and receiver face each other personally.
2. This communication consists of rumours and mis-conception. If a manager has expressed some personal opinion, it will be deemed as “Would be order” in times to come.
3. Informal communication spreads among people like wild fire. It creates sensation because even person narrates the information as per his own understanding.
4. It follows no set pattern, rather the news passes through different ways, because it depends nearness of contacts and not on status of persons in the organisation.
Informal Communication offers the following advantages:
1. Informal communication travels faster than formal communication. It can be used for speed communication under exceptional circumstances and in emergency.
2. Employees attitudes and reactions to plans and policies can be ascertained by managers more easily through informal contacts and interactions. Consequently, the managers are in a position to frame policies for future easily.
3. Employees can develop friendly relations and derive social satisfaction through informal exchange of ideas and information. Informal communication with employees often provides emotional relief to the subordinates and reduces tension in labour-management relations.
The following are some of the serious limitations of Informal Communication :
1. Messages flowing through informal channels tend to be distorted as different persons pass on the same with different outlook and interpretations. Often mis-understanding emerges in the organisation.
2. Such communication is unsystematic and cannot be relied upon for regularity and timeliness.
3. This form of communication is difficult to control because it has no beginning or end. Its flow and direction cannot be checked. Confidential information often leaks out through informal communication.
Informal communication is also known as Grapevine. As the origin and direction of the flow. Informally conveyed messages cannot be easily traced as in the case of a vineyard, so, the informal communication is termed as grapevine. This is basically a channel of horizontal communication in which people working at the same level of hierarchy communicate with each other with perfect ease. Grapevine includes rumours, gossips, apprehensions, baseless news, distorted facts, propaganda and tangled facts The grapevine’ often leads to rumours being spread through informal channel of communication. It is jug like fog in which truth and reality are lost. The grapevine often leads to rumours being spread through informal channels of communication. Further, it is not possible to fix responsibility for such communication.
According to Louis A. Allen, “Grapevine is a horizontal communication channel which is related to those persons who are associated with informal communication systems.” Thus, grapevine is actually informal communication and the process adopted in this communications never the same.
Grapevine holds its own importance in any organisation, both, from the point of view of the workers and the management. It spreads like fire in a bamboo forest. Every person is found trying to pass on the information received by him from any source to anyone and every one, so the message spreads swiftly This confirms the policies, decisions and other matters initiated at the level of management. People feel psychologically satisfied with grapevine, and it shows the cohesion in the organisation. This method of communication suffers from the drawback of being unorganized and not trustworthy. This creates confusion and the secrecy of the organisation’s functioning is harmed.
Grapevine can only be effective, when the organisation is working on the open door policy. Managers should organize meetings with workers to put a stop on rumours. Thus, this channel of communication can be useful for the business if it is used with care and proper checks.
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