Definition Of Group :

According to Edgar Schein, “A group is any number of people who interact with one another, are psychologically aware of one another, and perceive themselves to be a group.” Two other definitions of group are given below:

“A group consists of two or more persons who interact with each other consciously for the achievement of certain common objectives. The members of the group are mutually inter-dependent and they are aware that they are part of a group.” -Marrin E. Shaw

“A group is a set of two or more individuals who are jointly characterised by a network of relevant communications, a shared sense of collective identity and one or more shared dispositions with associated normative strength.”-David H. Smith

Thus, a group is a collection of two or more people who have a common goal and interact with each other to accomplish their goal, are aware of one another and perceive themselves to be a part of the group. Each person influences and is influenced by each other. Thus, casual gathering of people does not qualify as a group because the people are not aware of one another and do not interact between themselves in a meaningful way. People sitting in a cinema hall watching a movie or waiting at a platform for a train do not necessarily constitute a group.

 

Characteristics of a Group :

Any aggregation of persons to be called a group must possess the following features :

1. Interaction between Members. The members of a group must interact with each other. Each member influences the behaviour of the other and gets influenced by others. The interaction should normally be on regular basis f a longer period of time depending on the type and nature of group. The people in a group must be aware of each other and must relate to each other in some way or the other. Unless and until they feel that they are members of a particular group meaningful interaction among them may not take place. The relations among members in a group may be based on common areas of interest, goals and activities, etc.

2. Group Perception. The members of a group should perceive themselves as a collective identity. Once a group is formed, it acquires its own structure, process and goals and performs certain functions. The identity of a group is separate from the identity of its members.

3. Common Objectives. The formulation of a group is closely related to some common goals or purpose. The achievement of common goals of a group is a matter of common concern for every member and they have an obligation to contribute for attaining the common goals.

If an aggregation of persons does not fulfil any one or more of these requirements, it can’t be called a group. The passengers in a train, particularly daily passengers may at times form a group as they have a common purpose of avoiding boredom; they interact with one another when they indulge in common talks or play cards, they develop some sort of interdependency between them, say sharing seats, newspapers, etc. and they consider them to be part of the group as the group members try to board the same compartment every day.

 

Types Of Groups In Organisation :

Groups can be categorised in a number of ways. A few major types of groups are described as follows:

1. Small and Large Groups.

A small group is compact set of a few individuals. Members of such a group have almost fact-to-face interactions, communication, interpersonal relations, and interdependence. In contrast, a large group is usually a collection of a few small groups. Small groups remain more cohesive and compact in nature because their members are well knit and closely related to each other. The degree of interactions and interdependence of the members is higher as compared to large groups. On the other hand, large groups consist of greater number of members as well as many more smaller groups. So structure of relationships, types of interactions and nature of interpersonal relations will be different from that of small groups. Business organisations, society, nation, etc. are good examples of large groups.

2. Primary and Secondary Groups

A primary group is a small group characterised by relatively close association among members. The closeness of such association directly influences the behaviour of individuals in the group. The additional feature of a primary group which distinguishes it from a small group is the existence of a shared sense of identity, and values, interests and goals. Group loyalty is also very strong. It may thus be noted that although all primary groups are small in size, yet all small groups need not always be primary groups. A family, a friendship group, and a work group (i.e., a task group or a functional group-determined by prescribed job requirements) are examples of primary groups.

Secondary groups are relatively larger in size and mostly formed on the basis of formal, rational and contractual relationships among members. In these groups, role, position and relationship are predetermined and members work within the framework of prescribed boundaries. The relationships in such groups tend to be impersonal and group loyalty may be weak. Cohesiveness among the members of a large secondary group may be less as compared to a primary group.

3. Formal and Informal Groups

In any organisation, two types of groups coexist, namely, formal and informal groups. A formal group is a work unit that is deliberately created by the management as a part of the organisation structure, to perform tasks that enhance the accomplishment of organisational objectives. It is an ‘official’ group whose members are selected by management according to their talents in order to assume certain defined roles and to undertake specific tasks. The functioning of such a group is governed by organisational rules, procedures, and policies.

In an informal group, members cut across formal relationships of superior and subordinate and develop personal and social relationships on the basis of common interests, needs and values. The informal groups emerge spontaneously out of personal, social and natural instincts among the members They coexist alongwith the formal groups. Generally, informal groups are not stable as their existence depends upon the needs, values and goals of the members forming them.

 

Types of Formal Groups

1. Command Group. A command group is a formal group which is outlined on the chain of command on an organisation chart. It is a relatively permanent work-group which handles the routine and regular organisational activities on an ongoing basis. It consists of a manager and a set of subordinates who directly report to him. It continues to exist until a decision is made to change or reconstitute the organisation structure for some typical reason.

2. Task Group. A task group consists of members who interact with one another to accomplish most of the organisation’s non-routine tasks. It is created for a specific purpose (e.g. to solve a specific problem or to perform a defined task) and is typically disbanded once that purpose has been accomplished. It is a relatively temporary work-group. Examples of a task groups are committees, project groups, and task forces. A task group may include members from the same organisational level or from different levels. It might also include members from different functional areas such as finance, production, engineering, marketing, legal, etc.

 

Concept Of Group Dynamics

According to Keith Davis. “The social process by which people interact face ckground, to-face in small groups is called group dynamics.” At the workplace, people develop small groups based on common interest, language, race, religion, etc. Each group has its goals and lays down the modes of achieving these goals. The group develops certain norms of behaviour to regulate the conduct of its members. Every group selects its leader who may effectively co-ordinate the group efforts towards the achievement of its goals. Such a leader is known as informal leader as he is not recognised by the formal organisation. The behaviour of the group is quite complex as it does not follow a rigid pattern of communication based on authority-responsibility relationships.

Group dynamics are concerned with the formation of groups, their structure and processes and the way they affect individual members, other groups and the organisation The groups are formed for a variety of reasons such as need for socialisation, goal achievement, security, etc. Their structure is defined in terms of leader follower relations. Group processes relate to pattern of communication and use of power by the group. Every group evolves a norm of conduct to regulate the behaviour of its members and evolves its strategies to deal with other groups in the organisation. The study of dynamics of group behaviour is integral part of human behaviour in modern organisations as it provides insights into the working of groups and suggests ways of making better use of groups for the accomplishment of organisational objectives.

The basic assumptions underlying the study of group dynamics are as follows:

1. Groups are inevitable and ubiquitous

2. Groups exercise considerable influence on the behaviour and performance of individuals.

3. Groups may produce both good and bad consequences for the organisation.

4. Managers must understand group dynamics in order to obtain desirable results from the groups.

 

Formation Of Informal Groups :

Theories of Group Formation

The following theories explain the emergence of small groups in organisations:

1. Propinquity Theory. According to this theory, individuals affiliate with one another because of spatial or geographical nearness. In an organisation, employees who work in the same plant or office more easily make a group than employees working in different plants or offices. This theory provides an easy explanation of group formation. However, this theory is not analytical and it does not explain some of the complexities of group formation.

2. Homans Theory. Homans explained group formation in terms of activities, interactions and sentiments of people. Activities are the assigned tasks at which people work, interactions take place when any one person’s activity follows or proceeds the activity of another. Sentiments are the feelings people have towards one another. These three elements are directly related to each other. The more activities the persons share, the more numerous will be their interactions and the stronger will be their mutual sentiments. Therefore, in turn, more the interactions among persons, the more will be their shared activities and sentiments. Again in turn, the more sentiments the persons have for one another, the more will be their shared activities and interactions. Thus, Homans theory explains the functions of groups on the basis of interactions among people. Persons interact with one another not just in terms of physical togetherness but they also solve problems, attain goals, facilitate coordination, reduce tension, and achieve a balance. Participants in an organisation interacting in this manner tend to form powerful groups.

3. Balance Theory. Newcomb propounded this theory. He states that persons are attracted towards one another on the basis of similar attitudes towards common objects and goals. These common attitudes and values may relate to politics, religion, literature, work, authority, aesthetics, marriage, etc. Once a relationship is formed, the group members strive to maintain a symmetrical balance between the common attitudes and attractions. If an imbalance arises, an attempt is made to restore the balance. If the balance cannot be restored, the relationship dissolves. Both affiliation and interaction play a significant role in balance theory.

4. Exchange Theory. According to Thaibaut and Kelley, reward-cost outcomes of interaction are the basis of group formation. The outcome of a relationship must be rewarding in order to have attraction or affiliation among the members of a group. The persons derive personal and social satisfaction from having interactions with one another. If they experience anxiety or frustration or embarrassment or fatigue in such interactions, then these interactions become a cost or burden for them rather than a reward. Thus, a minimum positive level (rewards greater them costs) of an outcome must exist in order for attraction or affiliation to take place. This theory is known as exchange theory of rewards and cost outcomes. Propinquity, interaction and common attitudes all play roles in this theory.

Besides the theoretical explanations for group formation discussed above, there are some very practical reasons of joining and/or forming groups. For instance, employees in an organisation may form groups for economic security and social reasons. Economically, workers may form a group to work on a project that is paid for on a group-incentive plan or form a union to demand higher wages. For security, joining a group provides the individual with a united front in combating indiscriminate, unilateral treatment. The adage that there is strength in numbers applies here. The most important practical reason why individuals join or form groups is, however, that groups tend to satisfy the very intense social needs of most people. Workers generally have a very strong desire for affiliation. This need is met by belonging to a group.

 

Causes of Emergence of Groups –

There is no single reason which can explain why groups are formed. The important factors which are responsible for the formation of informal groups are discussed below:

1. Desire for Socialisation. Man is a social being. He wants to socialise with others. Being a member of a number of informal groups allows him to satisfy his social needs on the job. He can interact with others rather than working in isolated loneliness.

2. Sense of Identification. Many people have an urge to be identified as members of a distinct group. So they form special groups as cricket club, literary society, etc. This might also help in increasing their status.

3. Goal Achievement. People form groups to pool talents, knowledge and resources to achieve common goals or interests. People doing a common task confront similar types of problems. To remove such problems, they can constitute a separate group.

4. Monotonous Jobs. Workers performing standardised routine jobs often feel bored. In order to reduce their mental fatigue at work, they may form informal groups and have frequent interactions with each other at the workplace.

5. Security. There is strength in numbers. By joining a group, a person can reduce the insecurity of standing alone. Groups help the members to meet pressures effectively. Further, they feel secured against the management’s arbitrariness.

6. Source of Information. Informal group is a source of information to its members. Informal communication is very fast. A piece of information available to a member will reach nearly all the members of the group in a short span of time. The group may develop a special (code) language for speedy communication. Psychological barriers to communication are also overcome by the group.

7. Reduction of Monotony. Because of growing thrust on specialisation, rationalisation and simplification of work, it has become monotonous in nature. It creates fatigue and boredom on the part of individual performing it and thereby reduces level of his efficiency. Informal groups are created to break monotony and share feelings with the colleagues.

8. Innovation and Creativity. An informal group provides a supportive environment in which members can experiment with their ideas and explore alternative ways of doing things. It is a breeding ground for new ideas because the approval of fellow-workers is necessary for supporting new ideas and innovations.

 

Importance of Informal Groups for the Organisation –

Informal groups are important from the point of view of the management as they perform the following functions:

1. Support to Formal Structure. Informal groups provide support to formal organisation structure. Formal structure is mechanistic and hierarchical. Informal groups provide a human dimension to it. They fill the gaps in the formal structure.

2. Gaps in Management’s Abilities. An enlightened group can also fill in gaps in management’s abilities. At times, a manager does not have  adequate grasp over the problem. A subordinate has knowledge in the area and is willing to help his superior. Similarly, the group helps elaborate vague  policies and procedures.

3. Speedy Communication. Informal communication is very fast as it is free from the barriers of status and position. It can be used by the management to ensure free flow of communication.

4. Social Functions. Informal groups arise to satisfy social needs of members such as security, friendship, sense of belonging, etc. Thus, informal organisation gives psychological satisfaction to its members. It provides them a platform to express their feelings. It also satisfies the natural desire of people to form groups.

5. Solution of Work Problems. An informal organisation helps its members to solve their work problems through the help of other members, Le, sharing of knowledge and experience.

6. Norms of Behaviour. Informal groups develop certain norms of behaviour which differentiate between good and bad conduct and between legitimate and illegitimate activities. These bring discipline and order among the employees of the organisation.

7. Better Relations. A manager can build better relations with his subordinates through informal contacts. He can consult the informal leaders and seek their cooperation in getting the things done from the workers.

 

Dysfunctional or Negative Aspect of Informal Groups :

Although informal groups contribute to smooth and efficient functioning of the organisation and provide social satisfaction and job satisfaction to its members, but formation and existence of these groups in the organisation is not always a smooth sailing. They may generate certain problems for the organisation and its management. Such problems are discussed below :

1. Restriction of Output. Informal groups may pressurise their members to restrict their output and promote unauthorized behaviour. The group activities may run counter to the organisational goals. For example, Hawthorne studies that an informal group had set production norms below the capacity of the group and its members restricted their output so as to adhere to the group norms.

2. Conformity. Informal organisation exerts strong pressures for conformity. Conformity can make group members reluctant to act independently, creatively or assertively, for fear of losing group approval and membership. Sometimes, informal group leaders manipulate the group toward undesirable needs. They may block positive contributions from capable people. They may force members to restrict output, to exceed the time limit for coffee break, to indulge in intolerable activities taxing the patience of the management.

3. Power Politics by Informal Leaders. The informal leaders indulge in power politics. To seek dominance and to prevail upon the management, they tend to undermine organisational structure, values, goals and its environment. Unhealthy rivalry among these groups for getting more prominence may also affect the working of organisation in an adverse manner.

4. Role Conflict. Every member of informal group is also a member of formal organisation. In an informal group, members have specific roles to play, certain contributions to be made and enjoy status and social ranking But at the same time they are also expected to make valuable contribution and to play positive role in the formal organisation. Under different situations, distinct roles played by members may create role conflicts. Too much observance and compliance with rules and regulations of formal structure may create problem for informal groups.

5. Generation of Rumours. Informal communication often carriers inaccurate, incomplete and distorted information. Group members often indulge in spreading rumours to forestall management action. Rumours are more common when the employees are not kept informed on matters that directly affect them. Rumours make the job of management difficult and undetermined morale.

6. Resistance to Change. Informal groups generally pressurise the management for lowering down speed of change or to postpone them for future. Such tendency on the part of group members, may impede introduction and implementation of new ideas in the organisation and may hamper growth and diversification of the organisation.

7. Social Costs. Informal groups act as a safety valve for the frustrations and other emotional problems of the group members. Studies have observed that social interaction by alleviating monotony on the job may actually contribute to production. But this is true up to a certain point. Allowing informal groups to engage in gossiping, joke telling and general horse play or idle conversation that satisfy some of the members’ social needs results in higher operating costs to the organisation.

 

Group Norms :

In order to maintain the smooth functioning of the informal group, certain norms are evolved and complied with by all the members. The term ‘norm’ may be defined as a standard of behaviour or performance which the members are expected to observe.15 It also implies standard or permissible code of conduct followed by members in relation with group functioning. The group norms are usually determined through common consent and collective will of members. They are unwritten and informal rules and regulations binding on all the members in general.

Group norms have broader influence on the behaviour of members. Every group develops its own norms that direct the behaviour of its members towards accomplishment of its goals. Norms are developed and enforced for the following purposes:

1.  To facilitate survival of group;

2. To simplify and clarify role expectations;

3. To help group members, avoid embarrassing situations (protect self-image); and

4. To express key group values and enhance groups unique identity.

Main characteristics of group norms are as follows:

1. Norms summarize and highlight those things that the group it is important to control. Norms resolve interpersonal difference feels  in a group and ensure uniformity of action.

2. Norms are generally developed only for behaviours which are viewed as important by most group members.

3. Norms apply only to behaviour, not to private thoughts and feelings. It will be sufficient if there is behavioural compliance from the members.

4. Norms are usually developed in a gradual manner, but the process can be shortened if members so desire. If for some reason, group members decide that a particular norm is desirable, they may simply agree to abide by such norm.

5. Norms are invariably unwritten and informal expectations that develop through the interaction of group members over a period  of time in the form of conventions and through reinforcement of  behaviours by the group.

6. Group norms are determined and applied on the members to check and regulate their behaviour and improve performance specially in the context of matters which are important for the survival of group. By enforcing the group norms, discipline and order is maintained in the group.

 

Stages Of Group Development :

Life Cycle of a Team

The degree of group cohesiveness is affected by the manner in which the group progresses through the various stages of development and maturity. Tuckman’ has identified four stages of group development, namely, forming storming, norming and performing. The process of disbanding the team or group is called the adjourning stage. These five stages have been discussed below:

1. Forming Stage. Under the first stage of group or team development, the primary concern is the initial entry of members to the group. At this point, individuals ask a number of questions as they begin to identify with other group members and with the group itself. Their concerns may include: “What can the group offer me ?” “What will I be asked to contribute ?” “Can my needs be met at the same time I contribute to the group?” determining the real task of the group, and in defining group rules. All this is likely to be more complicated in the workplace than in other settings. Members of a new task-force, for example, may have been in the organisation for a substantial period of time. Such factors as multiple group memberships and identifications, prior experience with group members in other contexts, and impressions of organisation philosophies, goals, and policies may affect how these members initially behave in the newly formed task-force.

2. Storming Stage. This stage usually represents a period of high emotionality and tension among the group members. Hostility and infighting may occur during this stage. Typically, the group experiences many changes in the storming stage. Membership expectations-that is, the required activities-tend to be clarified and further elaborated. Attention begins to shift toward obstacles standing in the way of group goals. Individuals begin to understand one another’s interpersonal styles, and efforts will be made to find ways to accomplish group goals while also satisfying individual needs. Outside demands, including premature expectations for performance results, may create pressures at this time. Depending on the group’s size and membership composition, coalitions or cliques may appear in the form of emergent and informal sub-groups. Conflict may develop over leadership and authority, as individuals compete to impose their preferences on the group and to achieve their desired status position.

3. Norming Stage. At this stage of development, there is a clear sense of group identity and group structure; norms, procedures, roles and structure become formally established. The group is then ready to fulfil its purpose but it must be remembered that what is in place may not necessarily lead to effectiveness in management terms. In the Hawthorne bank wiring room experiment, group norms led to restrictions on production. It is this stage that management must seek to influence since once groups are fully developed with an entrenched culture, it is much more difficult to alter their members’ attitudes and behaviour.

4. Performing. When the group has progressed successfully through the three earlier stages of development, it will have created structure and cohesiveness to work effectively as a team. At this stage, the group can concentrate on the attainment of its purpose and performance of their common task is likely to be at its most effective.

5. Adjourning Stage. A well-integrated group is able to disband, if required, when its work is accomplished. This is an especially important stage for many temporary groups that are increasingly common in the new workplace, including task forces, committees. The members of these groups must be able to convene quickly, do their jobs on a tight schedule, and then adjourn-often to work together again in the future. The willingness of members to disband when the job is done and to work well together in future responsibilities, group or otherwise, is an important long-run test of group success.